The Science of Cannabinoids

A reference library of peer-reviewed studies and authoritative regulatory sources on hemp-derived cannabinoids, organized by ingredient and topic.

About this library. This page provides a bibliographic reference to peer-reviewed scientific publications and authoritative regulatory sources concerning hemp-derived cannabinoids and related ingredients. The publications listed here are external scientific works. Their inclusion does not constitute an Encore Life endorsement of any therapeutic use, nor any claim that any Encore Life product is intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.

Encore Life maintains this scientific reference for educational purposes. Citations are organized by ingredient and topic area. Each entry links to the original publication or authoritative source. Readers are encouraged to review the source material directly.

Contents CBD (Cannabidiol) | CBN (Cannabinol) | CBG (Cannabigerol) | Pharmacokinetics & Bioavailability | Arnica | Topical & Transdermal Cannabinoid Delivery | Endocannabinoid System, Entourage Effect & General Cannabinoid Science | Regulatory, Product Quality & Manufacturing
FDA disclaimer. These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This information is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. Consult a qualified healthcare professional before starting, stopping, or changing any CBD product, particularly if you are pregnant, nursing, taking prescription medications, or have a medical condition.

CBD (Cannabidiol)

An Update on Safety and Side Effects of Cannabidiol: A Review of Clinical Data and Relevant Animal Studies
Iffland K, Grotenhermen F | 2017 | Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research | Review
Confirms favorable safety profile of CBD in humans; most commonly reported side effects are tiredness, diarrhea, and appetite changes.
Cannabidiol (CBD) Critical Review Report - 40th Expert Committee on Drug Dependence
World Health Organization | 2018 | WHO ECDD | Regulatory Review
WHO concluded pure CBD presents no abuse or dependence potential and recommended it not be placed under international drug control.
Potential Adverse Drug Events and Drug-Drug Interactions with Medical and Consumer Cannabidiol (CBD) Use
Brown JD, Winterstein AG | 2019 | Journal of Clinical Medicine | Review
Reviews CBD interactions with cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP3A4, CYP2C19, CYP2C9, CYP2D6) and practical implications for co-medication.
Effects of cannabidiol and Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on cytochrome P450 enzymes: a systematic review
Multiple authors | 2024 | Pharmacology Research & Perspectives | Systematic Review
Systematic review of CBD and THC effects on cytochrome P450 enzymes; updates prior reviews with recent in vitro and clinical data.
Evaluation of Cytochrome P450-Mediated Cannabinoid-Drug Interactions in Healthy Adult Participants
Multiple authors | 2023 | Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics | Clinical Pharmacokinetic Study
Human pharmacokinetic study quantifying CBD interactions with drugs metabolized by major CYP enzymes.
Cannabidiol (CBD) in Clinical Care
StatPearls / NCBI Bookshelf | 2024 | NCBI Bookshelf | Reference
Comprehensive clinical reference covering CBD pharmacology, dosing considerations, safety, and approved uses.
Dosage, Efficacy and Safety of Cannabidiol Administration in Adults: A Systematic Review of Human Trials
Larsen C, Shahinas J | 2020 | Journal of Clinical Medicine Research | Systematic Review
Systematic review of CBD dosing across human trials.
A narrative review of molecular mechanism and therapeutic effect of cannabidiol (CBD)
Multiple authors | 2022 | Frontiers in Pharmacology | Review
Narrative review covering CBD molecular mechanisms across receptor systems.
Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Action of Cannabidiol
Multiple authors | 2023 | Pharmaceuticals | Review
Updated review of CBD mechanisms at the receptor, enzyme, and ion channel level.
Antioxidative and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Cannabidiol
Multiple authors | 2019 | Antioxidants | Review
Reviews CBD antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms at the cellular and molecular level.
Cannabidiol: Pharmacology and Therapeutic Targets
Multiple authors | 2020 | Pharmacology & Therapeutics | Review
Pharmacology-focused review covering CBD receptor targets and signaling pathways.
A Systematic Review on the Pharmacokinetics of Cannabidiol in Humans
Millar SA et al. | 2018 | Frontiers in Pharmacology | Systematic Review
Foundational systematic review of human CBD pharmacokinetics across routes of administration.
Cannabidiol-associated hepatotoxicity: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Multiple authors | 2023 | Journal of Internal Medicine | Systematic Review
Systematic review and meta-analysis examining the association between cannabidiol use and liver enzyme elevations.
Cannabidiol - LiverTox
NCBI / NIH | 2024 | LiverTox NCBI Bookshelf | Reference
NIH authoritative reference on CBD hepatotoxicity, including dose relationship and monitoring considerations.
Cannabidiol - Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed)
NCBI / NIH | 2024 | LactMed NCBI Bookshelf | Reference
Authoritative summary of CBD in lactation. The FDA advises against the use of CBD during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
What You Should Know About Using Cannabis, Including CBD, When Pregnant or Breastfeeding
U.S. Food and Drug Administration | 2024 | FDA.gov | Regulatory
FDA consumer guidance advising against use of CBD during pregnancy and lactation.

CBN (Cannabinol)

Cannabinol and Sleep: Separating Fact from Fiction
Multiple authors | 2021 | Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research | Critical Review
Critical review of the available human evidence for CBN as a sleep aid; notes that the evidence base is limited.
The use of cannabinoids for sleep: A critical review on clinical trials
Multiple authors | 2019 | Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology | Critical Review
Critical review of cannabinoid clinical trial evidence for sleep, noting limited and mixed evidence.
Cannabinol (CBN) effects on sleep and next-day function in insomnia disorder (CUPID study): protocol
Multiple authors | 2023 | BMJ Open | Trial Protocol
Protocol for a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study of isolated CBN doses for insomnia.
A sleepy cannabis constituent: cannabinol and its active metabolite influence sleep architecture in rats
Multiple authors | 2024 | Neuropsychopharmacology | Pre-clinical Research
Pre-clinical (rat) study examining CBN and its active metabolite on sleep architecture.
A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of CBN
Multiple authors | 2023 | Journal of the American Nutrition Association | Randomized Controlled Trial
Early human randomized controlled trial examining CBN.
Pharmacologic interaction between cannabinol and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
Karniol IG et al. | 1975 | European Journal of Pharmacology | Pre-clinical Research
Foundational early study of CBN-THC pharmacologic interaction.

CBG (Cannabigerol)

Cannabigerol (CBG): A Comprehensive Review of Its Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential
Multiple authors | 2024 | Molecules | Review
Comprehensive review of CBG mechanisms across CB1, CB2, TRP channels, and alpha-2 adrenoceptors.
The Pharmacological Case for Cannabigerol
Multiple authors | 2021 | Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | Review
Reviews the pharmacologic case for CBG including its distinct alpha-2 and 5-HT1A receptor activity.
Pharmacological Aspects and Biological Effects of Cannabigerol and Its Synthetic Derivatives
Multiple authors | 2022 | Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | Review
Review of CBG biological effects across multiple systems.
The Origin and Biomedical Relevance of Cannabigerol
Multiple authors | 2022 | International Journal of Molecular Sciences | Review
Covers CBG as the precursor cannabinoid and its biomedical relevance.
Cannabigerol Action at Cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 Receptors and at CB1-CB2 Heteroreceptor Complexes
Multiple authors | 2018 | Frontiers in Pharmacology | Pre-clinical Research
Examines CBG receptor pharmacology at CB1, CB2, and CB1-CB2 heteroreceptors.

Pharmacokinetics & Bioavailability

Food effect on pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol oral capsules in adult patients with refractory epilepsy
Birnbaum AK et al. | 2019 | Epilepsia | Clinical Pharmacokinetic Study
Demonstrates significant food effect on CBD oral absorption; high-fat meals substantially increase Cmax and AUC.
Critical Aspects Affecting Cannabidiol Oral Bioavailability and Metabolic Elimination, and Related Clinical Implications
Multiple authors | 2020 | Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology | Review
Reviews the multiple factors affecting CBD oral bioavailability and metabolic elimination.
Food effects on the formulation, dosing, and administration of cannabidiol (CBD) in humans: A systematic review of clinical studies
Multiple authors | 2021 | Pharmacotherapy | Systematic Review
Systematic review of food effects on CBD across clinical studies.
Innovative Strategies to Enhance the Bioavailability of Cannabidiol: Nanotechnology and Advanced Delivery Systems
Multiple authors | 2023 | Pharmaceutics | Review
Reviews nanotechnology-based delivery systems for improving CBD bioavailability.
Cannabidiol-Loaded Nanocarriers and Their Therapeutic Applications
Multiple authors | 2023 | Pharmaceuticals | Review
Reviews CBD-loaded nanocarriers including nanoemulsions and liposomes.
Stability characteristics of cannabidiol for the design of pharmacological, biochemical and pharmaceutical studies
Multiple authors | 2020 | Journal of Chromatography B | Original Research
Characterizes CBD stability under various pH and temperature conditions; relevant to formulation and shelf-life decisions.

Arnica

Clinical Trials, Potential Mechanisms, and Adverse Effects of Arnica as an Adjunct Medication for Pain Management
Multiple authors | 2021 | Pharmaceuticals | Review
Reviews clinical trials of arnica as an adjunct for pain management; evidence is mixed, with preparation and dosing as key confounders.
Effectiveness and Safety of Arnica montana in Post-Surgical Setting, Pain and Inflammation
Iannitti T et al. | 2014 | American Journal of Therapeutics | Review
Reviews arnica effectiveness in post-surgical pain and inflammation.
Arnica Montana - LiverTox
NCBI / NIH | 2024 | LiverTox NCBI Bookshelf | Reference
Authoritative reference on arnica safety profile including hepatotoxicity considerations.

Topical & Transdermal Cannabinoid Delivery

Systematic Review on Transdermal/Topical Cannabidiol Trials: A Reconsidered Way Forward
Multiple authors | 2022 | Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research | Systematic Review
Systematic review of topical and transdermal CBD trials; highlights methodological gaps and skin absorption challenges.
The Skin and Natural Cannabinoids - Topical and Transdermal Applications
Multiple authors | 2023 | Pharmaceuticals | Review
Review of cannabinoid topical and transdermal applications and skin pharmacology.
Examining the Systemic Bioavailability of Cannabidiol and Tetrahydrocannabinol from a Novel Transdermal Delivery System in Healthy Adults
Multiple authors | 2022 | Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research | Clinical Pharmacokinetic Study
Human pharmacokinetic study demonstrating CBD and THC can enter systemic circulation via transdermal administration.
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of five distinct commercially available hemp-derived topical cannabidiol products
Multiple authors | 2024 | Pharmacology Research & Perspectives | Clinical Pharmacokinetic Study
Compares pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics across five commercial hemp-derived topical CBD products.

Endocannabinoid System, Entourage Effect & General Cannabinoid Science

Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years
Pertwee RG | 2006 | British Journal of Pharmacology | Review
Foundational review of cannabinoid pharmacology history including receptor and endocannabinoid discovery.
The endocannabinoid system: a general view and latest additions
Multiple authors | 2006 | British Journal of Pharmacology | Review
Overview of the endocannabinoid system structure and function.
Review of the Endocannabinoid System
Multiple authors | 2021 | Biomedicines | Review
Modern review of the endocannabinoid system covering receptors, ligands, and physiological roles.
Early phytocannabinoid chemistry to endocannabinoids and beyond
Mechoulam R, Hanus L et al. | 2014 | Nature Reviews Neuroscience | Review
Historical review of phytocannabinoid chemistry through endocannabinoid discovery.
Tribute to Professor Raphael Mechoulam, The Founder of Cannabinoid and Endocannabinoid Research
Multiple authors | 2022 | Molecules | Tribute Review
Tribute and review summarizing the foundational contributions to cannabinoid science.
Metabolism of the Endocannabinoid Anandamide: Open Questions after 25 Years
Multiple authors | 2017 | Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience | Review
Review of anandamide metabolism and remaining scientific questions.
Molecular Mechanism and Cannabinoid Pharmacology
Multiple authors | 2020 | Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology | Review
Handbook-level review of molecular mechanisms underlying cannabinoid pharmacology.
Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects
Russo EB | 2011 | British Journal of Pharmacology | Review
Foundational entourage-effect review proposing cannabinoid-terpenoid synergy. Widely cited; not all proposed effects have been confirmed by subsequent trials.
The Entourage Effect in Cannabis Medicinal Products: A Comprehensive Review
Multiple authors | 2024 | Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research | Review
Comprehensive review assessing the state of the entourage-effect evidence.
Decoding the Postulated Entourage Effect of Medicinal Cannabis: What It Is and What It Isn't
Multiple authors | 2023 | Biomedicines | Review
Critical review distinguishing the validated mechanisms from the marketing claims around the entourage effect.

Regulatory, Product Quality & Manufacturing

FDA Regulation of Cannabis and Cannabis-Derived Products, Including Cannabidiol (CBD)
U.S. Food and Drug Administration | 2024 | FDA.gov | Regulatory
FDA primary public-facing statement of its regulatory framework for cannabis and CBD products.
Hemp Production and the 2018 Farm Bill - FDA Congressional Testimony
U.S. Food and Drug Administration | 2019 | FDA.gov | Regulatory
FDA testimony explaining the hemp production framework under the 2018 Farm Bill and the FDA's preserved authority.
FDA Regulation of Cannabidiol (CBD) Consumer Products: Overview
Congressional Research Service | 2024 | Congress.gov | Regulatory Analysis
Congressional Research Service overview of the FDA regulatory framework for CBD consumer products.
Processing and extraction methods of medicinal cannabis: a narrative review
Multiple authors | 2021 | PMC | Narrative Review
Narrative review of cannabis extraction methods including CO2, ethanol, and other approaches.
A Comprehensive Review on the Techniques for Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Cannabis
Multiple authors | 2022 | PMC | Review
Comprehensive review of cannabis extraction techniques and their effects on cannabinoid profile.
Effect of Hemp Extraction Procedures on Cannabinoid and Terpenoid Composition
Multiple authors | 2024 | PMC | Original Research
Examines how different entire extraction procedures affect the cannabinoid and terpenoid composition of the final extract.

Editorial policy. Publications listed in this library are selected for scientific quality and relevance to cannabinoid science generally. Selection does not represent Encore Life endorsement of any specific therapeutic claim, and Encore Life makes no claim that any product diagnoses, treats, cures, or prevents any disease. Some publications discuss research areas where the evidence base is still developing or where the findings raise safety considerations; readers should not infer clinical efficacy from inclusion in this reference.

Sources. Citations have been verified against PubMed, JAMA, the World Health Organization, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and the U.S. Congressional Research Service. External links open in a new window.

For questions about this scientific reference or to suggest additional publications, contact info@myencore.life.